Incapacitated whole-cell immunogenic bacterial compositions produced by recombinant expression

ABSTRACT

The present invention features incapacitated whole-cell bacterial immunogenic compositions and methods of their production, which compositions are useful to deliver antigens in a manner resembling the live infectious organism in terms of elicitation of a robust immune response, but with reduced risk or no risk of disease. The compositions of the invention are produced by rendering a bacterium bacteriostatic through expression of a recombinant promoter in the bacterial cell, which promoter can be operably linked to a polynucleotide encoding a recombinant gene product. In one embodiment, where the bacterium is a gram negative host, the recombinant gene product provides for reduced toxicity of LPS. In one embodiment, the gene product is a bacteriophage protein, such as endolysin, holin, or ndd.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.12/560,321, filed Sep. 15, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,289,481, which is acontinuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/715,348, filed Nov. 14,2003, now abandoned, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisionalapplication Ser. No. 60/426,670, filed Nov. 14, 2002, both of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods and compositions for production ofwhole-cell, inactivated immunogenic bacterial compositions that aresimilar to the live infectious pathogen with respect to immunogenicity,but which are not infectious.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The alarming increase in bacterial resistance to available antibiotics,international travel and newly identified infectious diseases havehighlighted the need for new effective vaccines. Inactivated whole-cellvaccines are an important component of the approaches emerging to meetthese public health needs. The administration of whole-cell vaccines isone of the most well-studied methods of vaccination against bacteriainfection. The particular advantages of whole-cell vaccines include thepresentation of many antigens (including protective, but yet undefinedantigens), minimal chances of side effects when given non-parenterally,zero virulence potential, and adjuvant-like character. Studies in animalmodels and humans have shown immunogenicity when whole-cell vaccineswere administered orally or parenterally. Effective protection againstrespiratory, enteric and systemic bacterial infections has also beenshown. Although only inactivated whole-cell pertussis vaccine has beenused to immunize the general public, other whole-cell vaccines have thepotential for global use.

There are only two basic types of vaccines: live attenuated andinactivated. The characteristics of live and inactivated vaccines aredifferent, and these characteristics determine how the vaccine is used.

Live Attenuated Vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines are produced by modifying a disease-producing(“wild type”) bacteria in the laboratory. Live attenuated vaccinesavailable in the U.S. include live viruses and live bacteria. These wildtype viruses or bacteria are attenuated, or weakened, in the laboratory,usually by repeated culturing. In order to produce an immune response,live attenuated vaccines must replicate (grow) in the vaccinated person.A relatively small dose of virus or bacteria is given, which replicatesin the body and increases to a volume large enough to stimulate animmune response. Anything that either damages the live organism in thevial (e.g., heat, light), or interferes with replication of the organismin the body (circulating antibody) can cause the vaccine to beineffective. Although live attenuated vaccines replicate, they usuallydo not cause disease, such as may occur with the natural (wild)organism. When a live attenuated vaccine does cause “disease,” it isusually much milder than the natural disease, and is referred to anadverse reaction. The immune response to a live attenuated vaccine isvirtually identical to that produced by a natural infection. The immunesystem does not differentiate between an infection with a weakenedvaccine bacterium and an infection with a wild type bacterium. Liveattenuated vaccines are generally effective with one dose, except thoseadministered orally.

However, live attenuated vaccines meet with several limitations, First,live attenuated vaccines may cause severe or fatal reactions as a resultof uncontrolled replication (growth) of the vaccine virus. This onlyoccurs in persons with immunodeficiency (e.g., from leukemia, treatmentwith certain drugs, or HIV infection). In addition depending upon howthe vaccine strain was generated, a live attenuated vaccine cansometimes revert back to its original pathogenic (disease-causing) form.To date, this has only been known to occur with live polio vaccine.Active immunity from a live attenuated vaccine may not develop due tointerference from circulating antibody to the vaccine virus. Antibodyfrom any source (e.g., transplacental, transfusion) can interfere withgrown of the vaccine organism and lead to nonresponse to the vaccine(also known as vaccine failure). Measles vaccine virus seems to be mostsensitive to circulating antibody. Polio and rotavirus vaccine virusesare least affected. Live attenuated vaccines are labile and can bedamaged or destroyed by heat and light. They must be handled and storedcarefully. Currently available live attenuated vaccines include liveviruses (measles, mumps, rubella, polio, yellow fever, vaccinia andvaricella), and two live bacterial vaccines (BCG and oral typhoid).

Inactivated Vaccines

Inactivated vaccines can be composed of either whole viruses orbacteria, or fractions of either. Fractional vaccines are eitherprotein-based or polysaccharide-based. Protein based vaccines includetoxoids (inactivated bacterial toxin), and subunit products. Mostpolysaccharide-based vaccines are composed of pure cell-wallpolysaccharide from bacteria. Conjugate polysaccharide vaccines arethose in which the polysaccharide is chemically linked to a protein.This linkage makes the polysaccharide a more potent vaccine. Thesevaccines are produced by growing the bacteria in culture media, theninactivating it with heat and/or chemicals (usually formalin). In thecase of fractional vaccines, the organism is further treated to purifyonly those components to be included in the vaccine (e.g., thepolysaccharide capsule of pneumococcus).

Inactivated vaccines are not alive and cannot replicate. The entire doseof antigen is administered in the injection (as compared to liveattenuated vaccines, which provide further “doses” upon replication inthe host). Inactivated vaccines cannot cause disease from infection,even in an immunodeficient person. Unlike live antigens, inactivatedantigens are usually not affected by circulating antibody. Inactivatedvaccines may be given when antibody is present in the blood (e.g., ininfancy, or following receipt of antibody-containing blood products).Inactivated vaccines typically require multiple doses. In general, thefirst dose does not produce protective immunity, but only “primes” theimmune system. A protective immune response develops after the second orthird dose.

In contrast to live vaccines, in which the immune response closelyresembles natural infection, the immune response to an inactivatedvaccine is mostly humoral. Little or no cellular immunity results.Antibody titers against inactivated antigens fall over time. As aresult, some inactivated vaccines may require periodic supplementaldoses to increase or “boost,” antibody titers. In some cases, theantigen critical to protection against the disease may not be defined,thus requiring the use of “whole cell” vaccines.

Currently available inactivated vaccines include inactivated wholeviruses (influenza, polio, rabies, hepatitis A) and inactivated wholebacteria (pertussis, typhoid, cholera, plague). “Fractional” vaccinesinclude subunits (hepatitis B, influenza, acellular pertussis, typhoidVi, Lyme disease), toxoids (diphtheria, tetanus, botulinum), purepolysaccharides (pneumococcal, meningococcal, Haemophilus influenzaetype b) and polysaccharide conjugates (Haemophilus influenzae type b andpneumococcal).

In summary, it is recognized that the more similar a vaccine is to thenatural disease, the better the immune response to the vaccine. Whileattenuated vaccines are most promising in this regard, they pose risksof disease in immuno-compromised hosts and reversion to wild-type,pathogenic organisms. Inactivated vaccines avoid these problems, yet canbe less desirable in that these vaccines do not mimic natural infectionand so may not elicit the relevant immune response or elicit as robust,protective an immune response as might be desired.

One challenge with whole cell vaccines is that, when derived from gramnegative bacteria, the composition may contain considerable amounts ofendotoxin. Endotoxins are lipopolysaccharides (LPS) (Hitchcock et al,1986), which are constituents of the bacterial cell wall. Means ofinactivation of cells commonly used, such as heating or chemicals (suchas formaldehyde), do reduce the levels of endotoxin, but at the sametime reduce the antigenic potency of the vaccine itself by thetreatment. Systemic exposure to high levels of endotoxins in humans orother mammals results in numerous adverse reactions (Cort & Kindahl,1980; Culbertson & Osburn, 1980). Clinical signs such as fever,tachypnoea, vomiting as well as changes in the haemodynamics are seenafter injection of vaccines containing elevated amount of LPS (Hussain &Ready, 1981).

Vaccines rank among the most effective public health tools for loweringthe incidence of the infectious diseases. There is thus a need in thefield for safe bacterial vaccines that resemble the infectious organismmore closely than the inactivated vaccines, but which have reduced or nosignificant risk of causing disease in the vaccinated subject. An idealvaccine would be one that involves use of a whole bacterial cell, butwith the toxic effects of the LPS neutralized while retaining the cellintact and resembling the live organism in all other respects. Thepresent invention addresses this need.

REFERENCES

Amann et al. (1983) Gene 25: 167-1782; Amann et al. (1988) Gene, 69,301-315; Bloemberg et al. (1997), Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 4443-45514;Chamberlin M. et al., (1970) Nature (London), 228, 227; Chamberlin etal. (1973) J. Biol. Chem., 248, 2235; Cort et al. (1980) ActaVeterinaria Scandinavia, 31, 347-358; Culbertson et al. (1980) VetenaryScientific Communications, 4, 3-14; Davanloo et al. (1984) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci, 81, 2035-2039; Dunn et al. (1983) J. Mol. Biol., 166, 477;Golomb et al. (1974) J. Biol. Chem., 249, 2858; Guzman et al. (1992) J.Bacteriol., 177, 4121-4130; Haldimann et al. (1998) J. Bacteriol. 180,1277-1286; Han et al. (1994) J. Biol. Chem., 269(11), 8172-8175;Hitchcock et al. (1986) J. Bacteriol., 166, 699-705; Hussaini et al.(1981) Vet. Res. Comm., 5, 171-175; Ing-Nang Wang et al. (2000) Annu.Rev. Microbiol., 54, 799-825; Luria et al. (1950) J. Bacteriol., 59,551-560; Martin et al. (1998) J. Bacteriol., 180, 210-217; Murray et al.(1950) J. Bacteriol., 59, 603-615; Schumann et al. (1990) Science, 249,1429; Sherry et al. (1988) J. Cell Biol., 107, 1269; Studier et al.(1986) J. Mol. Biol., 189, 113-130; Studier et al. (1990) Methods inEnzymology, 185, 60-63; Wright et al. (1990) Science, 249, 1431; Younget al. (1992) Microbiol. Rev., 56, 430-481; Young et al. (1995) FEMSMicobiol. Rev., 17, 191-205; Young et al. (2000) Trends Microbiol., 8,120-128

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention features incapacitated whole-cell bacterialimmunogenic compositions and methods of their production, whichcompositions are useful to deliver antigens in a manner resembling thelive infectious organism in terms of elicitation of a robust immuneresponse, but with reduced risk or no risk of disease. The compositionsof the invention are produced by rendering a bacterium bacteriostaticthrough expression of a recombinant promoter in the bacterial cell,which promoter can be operably linked to a polynucleotide encoding arecombinant gene product. In one embodiment, where the bacterium is agram negative host, the recombinant gene product provides for reducedtoxicity of LPS. In one embodiment, the gene product is a bacteriophageprotein, such as endolysin, holin, or ndd.

In one aspect the invention features a method of eliciting an immuneresponse to a bacterial pathogen, the method comprising administering anincapacitated whole cell immunogenic bacterial composition to a subjectsusceptible to infection by or a disease caused by a pathogenicbacterium. The incapacitated bacterium is produced as a result ofexpression of a recombinant promoter, which is optionally operablylinked to a coding sequence for a recombinant gene product. Theimmunogenic composition is administered in an amount effective to elicitan immune response to the pathogenic bacterium in the host.

In another aspect the invention features a method of vaccinating asubject against disease caused by a bacterial pathogen, the methodcomprising administering to a subject susceptible to disease caused by apathogenic bacterium an incapacitated whole cell bacterial vaccine, thevaccine comprising the pathogenic bacterium incapacitated by expressionfrom a recombinant promoter, which is optionally operably linked to asequence encoding a recombinant protein. The vaccine is administered inan amount effective to elicit an immune response to the pathogenicbacterium in the subject.

In another aspect, the invention features a method for eliciting animmune response to an antigen, the method comprising administering to asubject an incapacitated whole cell bacterial composition, wherein thecomposition comprises a bacterium incapacitated by expression from arecombinant promoter, which is optionally operably linked to a sequenceencoding a recombinant protein. The composition is administered to thesubject in an amount effective to elicit an immune response in thesubject to an antigen present in or on the bacterium. In specificembodiments, the recombinant protein is the antigen. The antigen can beendogenous bacterial antigen.

In embodiments of the various aspects above, where the recombinantpromoter is operably linked to a recombinant polynucleotide encoding arecombinant protein, the recombinant protein is a protein that bindslipopolysaccharide. In specific embodiments, the recombinant proteincomprises a lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) or an LPS-bindingdomain thereof. In further specific embodiments, the recombinant proteinis not a viral protein of a virus that infects a mammalian cell, e.g.,HIV-1 Vpr. Other embodiments include those where the protein or anantibacterial peptide is toxic to the host organism to ensure the cellsare inactivated, or where the protein is an immune stimulant or vaccineadjuvant. Further embodiments include those where proteins that negatethe effects of host bacterial components on the subject to be immunized(e.g., LPS-binding polypeptides, and the like).

In further embodiments of the aspects above, the recombinant promoter isa strong bacteriophage promoter. In specific embodiments, the bacteriumis further modified to express a bacteriophage RNA polymerase fortranscription from the bacteriophage promoter. In further relatedembodiments, the bacteriophage RNA polymerase is operably linked to aninducible promoter. In one specific embodiment, bacteriophage promoteris a T7 promoter and the bacteriophage RNA polymerase is a T7 RNApolymerase.

In further embodiments, the bacterium used to generate the incapacitatedbacterium is of a genus selected from the group consisting ofMycobacteria, Staphylococci, Vibrio, Enterobacter, Enterococcus,Escherichia, Haemophilus, Neisseria, Pseudomonas, Shigella, Serratia,Salmonella, Streptococcus, Klebsiella and Yersinia.

A feature of the invention is that it provides methods for producing animmunogenic bacterial whole cell composition which is incapacitated in amanner that maintains the immunogenicity or antigenicity of thebacterium, but does not allow for recovery of the bacterium andreplication and infection in the host.

Another feature of the invention is to provide for methods andcompositions to effect a protective immune response against bacterialinfections, particularly infections by pathogenic bacteria.

One advantage of the invention is that the incapacitated bacterialvaccines are associated with a substantially reduced risk of causingdisease in a vaccinated host compared to live attenuated vaccines, asthe incapacitated bacteria do not recover, or only recover at very lowrates, from incapacitation according to the invention.

Another advantage of the invention is that antigen against which animmune response is desired when produced in an incapacitated bacteriumof the invention is not significantly modified in terms of the antigenspresented on the bacterial cell surface or in terms of antigens that areprovided as inclusion or aggregate bodies inside bacteria which areprocessed by the immune system, e.g., following phagocytosis of thebacterium by a macrophage. In contrast, chemically-induced bacterialinactivation can result in cross-linking of surface proteins andirreversible chemical modification of the antigen.

These and other advantages and features of the invention will becomeapparent to those persons skilled in the art upon reading the details ofthe animal model and methods of its use as more fully described below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING

FIG. 1 is set of graphs showing the effect of recombinant greenfluorescent protein (rGFP) expression on growth and viability of DE3 E.coli cells.

FIG. 2 is a set of graphs showing the effect of recombinant NADHdehydrogenase expression on growth and viability of DE3 E. coli cells.

FIG. 3 is a set of graphs showing the effect IPTG induction ofexpression of the promoter on the pRSET vector on growth and viabilityof DE3 E. coli cells.

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustrating the cloning and expression of the T4holin gene in a bacterial host.

FIG. 5 is a set of graphs showing the effect of T4 holin upon growth andrelease of β-galactosidase when expressed in BL21(DE3) E. coli cells.

FIG. 6 is a set of graphs showing the effect of T4 holin upon growth andviability when expressed in MTCC 728 E. coli cells.

FIG. 7 is a set of graphs showing the effect of T4 holin upon growth andviability when expressed in MTCC 443 E. coli cells.

FIG. 8 is a set of graphs showing the effect of T4 holin upon growth andviability when expressed in B542 E. coli cells.

FIG. 9 is a set of graphs showing the effect of T4 holin upon growth andviability when expressed in MTCC 728 E. coli cells.

FIG. 10 is a set of graphs showing the effect of IPTG induction ofpTrc99A on growth and viability of DH5α E. coli cells.

FIG. 11 is a set of graphs showing the effect of pTrc/T4L on growth andviability when expressed in DH5α E. coli cells.

Before the present invention is described, it is to be understood thatthis invention is not limited to particular methodology, protocols,bacteria, animal species or genera, constructs, and reagents described,as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that theterminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope ofthe present invention will be limited only by the appended claims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that eachintervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unlessthe context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lowerlimits of that range is also specifically disclosed. Each smaller rangebetween any stated value or intervening value in a stated range and anyother stated or intervening value in that stated range is encompassedwithin the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller rangesmay independently be included or excluded in the range, and each rangewhere either, neither or both limits are included in the smaller rangesis also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specificallyexcluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes oneor both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those includedlimits are also included in the invention.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used inthe practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methodsand materials are now described. All publications mentioned herein areincorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methodsand/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited.

It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, thesingular forms “a”, “and”, and “the” include plural referents unless thecontext clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “apromoter” includes a plurality of such promoters and reference to “thehost cell” includes reference to one or more host cells and equivalentsthereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth.

The publications discussed herein are provided solely for theirdisclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothingherein is to be construed as an admission that the present invention isnot entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior invention.Further, the dates of publication provided may be different from theactual publication dates which may need to be independently confirmed.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides methods and compositions relating toproduction of incapacitated whole cell bacteria, which bacteria aregenerated by expression of a recombinant promoter, which is optionallyoperably linked to a recombinant polynucleotide encoding a gene product.Expression from the promoter is at a level sufficient to render the hostbacterium bacteriostatic. In one embodiment of particular interest,where the bacterium is a gram negative host, the recombinant geneproduct provides for reduced toxicity of LPS, e.g., through expressionof a protein such a lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP). In otherembodiments, the recombinant gene product is toxic to the host cell, orinduces a more robust immune response, e.g., by attracting immune cellsor increasing an active immune response.

Specific aspects of the invention will now be described in more detail.The incapacitated whole cell bacteria will be useful as vaccineimmunogens. See, e.g., Levine, et al. (eds. 1997) New GenerationVaccines Dekker ISBN 0824700619; Schulz and Dodds (eds. 1999) VeterinaryVaccines and Diagnostics Acadmic Press ISBN 0120392429; and Kirkpatrickand Alston (2003) Curr. Op. Infect. Dis. 16:369-74.

DEFINITIONS

By “incapacitated” in the context of an incapacitated bacterial cellproduced according to the invention, is meant that the bacterial cell isin a state of irreversible bacteriostasis. While the bacterium retainsits structure—and thus retains the immunogenicity, antigenicity, andreceptor-ligand interactions associated with a wild-type bacterium—it isnot capable of replicating due to the depletion of host factors due tothe expression from a recombinant promoter.

By “isolated” is meant that the material is at least 60%, by weight,free from the proteins and naturally-occurring organic molecules withwhich it is naturally associated. Preferably, the material is at least75%, more preferably at least 90%, and most preferably at least 99%, byweight, the material of interest. “Isolated” thus encompassespreparations that are enriched for the desired material.

The terms “polynucleotide” and “nucleic acid”, used interchangeablyherein, refer to a polymeric forms of nucleotides, includingribonucleotides, deoxynucleotides, or mixed forms. Thus, these termsinclude, but are not limited to, single-, double-, or multi-stranded DNAor RNA, genomic DNA, cDNA, DNA-RNA hybrids, or a polymer comprisingpurine and pyrimidine bases or other natural, chemically orbiochemically modified, non-natural, or derivatized nucleotide bases.

The terms “polypeptide” and “protein”, used interchangeably herein,refer to a polymeric form of amino acids of any length, which caninclude coded and non-coded amino acids, chemically or biochemicallymodified (e.g., post-translational modification such as glycosylation)or derivatized amino acids, polymeric polypeptides, and polypeptideshaving modified peptide backbones. The term includes fusion proteins,including, but not limited to, fusion proteins with a heterologous aminoacid sequence, fusions with heterologous and homologous leadersequences, with or without N-terminal methionine residues;immunologically tagged proteins; and the like.

The term “recombinant polynucleotide” as used herein intends apolynucleotide of genomic, cDNA, semisynthetic, or synthetic originwhich, by virtue of its origin or manipulation: (1) is not associatedwith all or a portion of a polynucleotide with which it is associated innature, (2) is linked to a polynucleotide other than that to which it islinked in nature, or (3) does not occur in nature.

“Recombinant host cells”, “host cells”, “cells”, “cell lines”, “cellcultures”, and other such terms denoting microorganisms or highereukaryotic cells cultured as unicellular entities refer to cells whichhave been used as recipients for recombinant vector or other transferDNA, and include the progeny of the original cell which has beentransfected. Recombinant bacterial host cells are of particular interestin the present invention. It is understood that the progeny of a singleparental cell may not necessarily be completely identical in morphologyor in genomic or total DNA complement as the original parent, due tonatural, accidental, or deliberate mutation.

“Operably linked” refers to a juxtaposition wherein the components sodescribed are in a relationship permitting them to function in theirintended manner. A control sequence “operably linked” to a codingsequence is ligated in such a way that expression of the coding sequenceis achieved under conditions compatible with the control sequences.

An “open reading frame” (ORF) is a region of a polynucleotide sequencewhich encodes a polypeptide; this region may represent a portion of acoding sequence or a total coding sequence.

A “coding sequence” is a polynucleotide sequence which is transcribedinto mRNA and can be translated into a polypeptide when placed under thecontrol of appropriate regulatory sequences. The boundaries of thecoding sequence are determined by a translation start codon at the5′-terminus and a translation stop codon at the 3′-terminus. A codingsequence can include, but is not limited to mRNA, cDNA, and recombinantpolynucleotide sequences.

“Heterologous” means that the materials are derived from differentsources (e.g., from different genes, different species, etc.).

“Transformation”, as used herein, refers to the insertion of anexogenous polynucleotide into a host cell, irrespective of the methodused for the insertion, for example, direct uptake, transduction,F-mating or electroporation. The exogenous polynucleotide may bemaintained as a non-integrated vector, for example, a plasmid, oralternatively, may be integrated into the host genome.

The terms “individual,” “subject,” “host,” and “patient,” are usedinterchangeably herein and refer to any subject having a bacterialinfection amenable to treatment using the immunogenic compositions ofthe invention, and for whom treatment or therapy is desired. Mammaliansubjects and patients, particularly primate subjects or patients are ofparticular interest. Other subjects may include livestock or companionanimals, e.g., cattle, dogs, cats, guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, mice,horses, and so on.

The terms “treatment”, “treating”, “treat” and the like are used hereinto generally refer to obtaining a desired pharmacologic and/orphysiologic effect. The effect may be prophylactic in terms ofcompletely or partially preventing a disease or symptom thereof and/ormay be therapeutic in terms of a partial or complete stabilization orcure for a disease and/or adverse effect attributable to the disease.“Treatment” as used herein covers any treatment of a disease in asubject, particularly a mammalian subject, more particularly a human,and includes: (a) preventing the disease or symptom from occurring in asubject which may be predisposed to the disease or symptom but has notyet been diagnosed as having it; (b) inhibiting the disease symptom,i.e., arresting its development; or relieving the disease symptom, i.e.,causing regression of the disease or symptom.

By “infecting bacterium” is meant a bacterium that has establishedinfection in the host, and which may be associated with a disease orundesirable symptom as a result. Generally, infecting bacteria ofinterest are pathogenic bacteria, and may include a culture of multiplebacteria which together act to cause the pathology. Treatment mayrequire elimination of a single, or multiple types of bacteria.

By “drug-resistant bacteria” or “antibiotic-resistant bacteria” is meanta bacterial strain that is resistant to growth inhibition or killing byan antibiotic. Multi-drug resistant bacteria are resistant to two ormore antibiotics. Drug resistance can encompass, for example,ineffective killing of the infecting bacteria such that at least aninfectious dose remains in the subject and the infection continues,resulting in continued symptoms of the associated infectious disease orlater evidence of such symptoms. Drug resistance can also encompassinhibiting growth of the drug-resistant bacteria until such time therapyis discontinued, after which the bacteria begin to replicate and furtherthe infectious disease.

By “inhibition of bacterial growth” in the context of infection of anincapacitated bacterial cell according to the invention is meant that,following infection of the bacteria, the bacterial host cell's normaltranscriptional and/or translational mechanisms are compromised suchthat the infected bacteria does not undergo substantial cell division(replication) and is caused to enter a state of bacteriostasis. Thestasis causes pathogenic effects to also regress.

The term “protective immunity” means that a vaccine, immunogeniccomposition or immunization schedule that is administered to a mammalinduces an immune response that prevents, retards the development of, orreduces the severity of a disease that is caused by a pathogenicbacterium or diminishes or altogether eliminates the symptoms of thedisease.

The phrase “in a sufficient amount to elicit an immune response toepitopes present in said preparation” means that there is a detectabledifference between an immune response indicator measured before andafter administration of a particular immunogenic composition (e.g.,vaccine preparation). Immune response indicators include but are notlimited to: antibody titer or specificity, as detected by an assay suchas enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA), bactericidal assay, flowcytometry, immunoprecipitation, Ouchter-Lowny immunodiffusion; bindingdetection assays of, for example, spot, Western blot or antigen arrays;cytotoxicity assays, etc.

The terms “immunogenic bacterial composition” and “immunogeniccomposition” are used interchangeably herein to mean a preparationcapable of eliciting a cellular and/or humoral immune response in asubject when administered in a sufficient amount to elicit an immuneresponse to epitopes present in said preparation. Such immunogeniccompositions can find use as a vaccine.

A “surface antigen” is an antigen that is present in a surface structureof a bacterial cell (e.g. the outer membrane, inner membrane,periplasmic space, capsule, pili, etc.).

The term “immunologically naïve” with respect to a particular bacterialpathogen denotes an individual (e.g., a mammal such as a primatepatient) that has never been exposed (through infection oradministration) to the specific bacterial pathogen or to an antigencomposition derived from such bacteria in sufficient amounts to elicitprotective immunity, or if exposed, failed to mount a protective immuneresponse.

As used herein, the term “antibody” refers to a polypeptide or group ofpolypeptides which are comprised of at least one antibody combiningsite. An “antibody combining site” or “binding domain” is formed fromthe folding of variable domains of an antibody molecule(s) to formthree-dimensional binding spaces with an internal surface shape andcharge distribution complementary to the features of an epitope of anantigen, which allows an immunological reaction with the antigen. Anantibody combining site may be formed from a heavy and/or a light chaindomain (V_(H) and V_(L), respectively), which form hypervariable loopswhich contribute to antigen binding. The term “antibody” includes, forexample, vertebrate antibodies, hybrid antibodies, chimeric antibodies,altered antibodies, univalent antibodies, the Fab proteins, and singledomain antibodies. An “anti-idiotype” antibody refers to a type ofantibody which mimics the structure of an antigen to which anotherantibody is specific.

Production of Incapacitated Bacteria

In general, incapacitated bacteria of the invention are produced byexpression, particularly hyper-expression, from a recombinant promoter.Expression from the recombinant promoter is at a level sufficient torender the bacterial host bacteriostatic. The following providesdescription of specific embodiments of the invention.

Expression from a Heterologous Promoter, Optionally Operably Linked to aRecombinant Protein-Encoding Sequence, in a Bacterial System:

In general, the invention provides for production of incapacitatedbacteria (e.g., the bacterial host is rendered bacteriostatic) byexpression of a heterologous promoter at a level for productionsufficient to render the bacteria bacteriostatic.

In one embodiment, the promoter is a strong bacteriophage promoter, suchas a T7 promoter and the bacteria is modified to express a recombinantcompatible bacteriophage polymerase, such as T7 RNA polymerase. The RNApolymerase of bacteriophage T7 is very selective for specific promotersthat are rarely encountered in DNA unrelated to T7 DNA (M. Chemberlin etal., Nature (London), 228, 227, 1970; J. J. Dunn and F. W. Studier, J.Mol. Biol., 166, 477, 1983). Efficient termination signals are alsorare, so that T7 RNA polymerase makes complete transcripts of any DNAthat is placed under the control of a T7 promoter. T7 RNA polymerase isa very active enzyme and elongates chains five times faster than does E.coli RNA polymerase (M. Chamberlin and J. Ring, J. Biol. Chem., 248,2235 (1973); M. Golomb and M. Chemberlin, J. Biol Chem., 249, 2858(1974).

T7 RNA polymerase transcribes actively and selectively under the controlof the T7 promoter. Transcription by T7 RNA polymerase is so active thattranscription by the host RNA polymerase cannot compete and almost allthe transcription in the cell rapidly becomes due to T7 RNA polymerase.

A single molecule of active T7 RNA polymerase is sufficient to trigger aresponse of autocatalytic increase in both the level of T7 RNApolymerase and in the rate of transcription of a plasmid wherein thegene is cloned along with its promoter (Davanloo et al 1984). Therefore,incapacitation may be achieved even by simply expressing T7 RNApolymerase alone.

In one embodiment, the promoter is operably linked to a nucleic acidencoding a recombinant heterologous protein. In such applications themost important parameter is the fractional abundance of the recombinantheterologous protein at the time the culture is harvested. Differentfermentation schemes can achieve identical fractional abundances. Theexpression module may be so arranged as to yield a reasonable fractionalsynthetic rate throughout the growth period and harvest the culture atthe highest possible cell concentration. Conversely, the heterologousgene may be induced fully at a stage late in fermentation to obtain andharvest at maximal abundance of the protein of interest. The focus insuch procedures is on the heterologous protein being synthesized, suchthat the bacterial host is rendered incapable of expression ofendogenous genes at a level sufficient to maintain bacterial cellviability. Thus, the gene may be optimized by codon usage to producemaximum efficiency in translation by the host.

In a related embodiment, the strong promoter is operably linked to anucleic acid encoding a recombinant, e.g., heterologous, protein. Thedata described in the Examples below indicates that “hyper expression”of any recombinant protein in a bacterial system under T7 promotersystem, leads to total loss of bacterial viability. Examples of suchproteins include green fluorescent protein (GFP) and NADH dehydrogenase.Thus, the present inventors have found that the protein need not be onethat has activity itself in inactivating the bacterial host celltranscription or translation machinery, or otherwise itself has activityin inhibiting bacterial growth. In particular embodiments, therecombinant protein is other than a eukaryotic viral protein, such asHIV-1 Vpr. In other embodiments, the protein is toxic to the producingcell, ensuring that the cell is inactivated. In yet other embodiments,the protein is a cytokine or other immunoregulatory protein whichinduces the immune system to mount a more robust immune response to theimmunogen. Generally, the proteins themselves will be minimallyimmunogenic, e.g., may be of subject origin.

In another embodiment, the recombinant promoter is an inducible strongpromoter. In still another embodiment, the bacteria is modified tocontain two recombinant promoters: 1) a first recombinant strongpromoter, which is optionally operably linked to a polynucleotideencoding a gene product; and 2) a second recombinant inducible promoter,which promoter is operably linked to a polynucleotide encoding an RNApolymerase that acts upon the first strong promoter. For example, thefirst promoter can be a strong bacteriophage promoter, such as a T7promoter, and the second inducible promoter is operably linked to apolynucleotide encoding a bacteriophage RNA polymerase specific for thefirst promoter, such as T7 RNA polymerase.

The inducible promoter can be any suitable inducible promoter, e.g., lacpromoter or derivative thereof; trp promoter or derivative thereof;arabinose promoter or derivative thereof; tetracycline induciblepromoter; and the like. In the Examples below, the inventors havedemonstrated that induction of synthesis with IPTG of T7 RNA polymerasepresent on the chromosome (DE3 lysogen) under lacUV5 promoter in thelaboratory strain BL21 DE3 leads to loss of viability of the cells.

In another embodiment, the recombinant, e.g., heterologous, protein is aprotein that is selectively and highly toxic to the bacterial hostalone. In this embodiment, an expression level required to incapacitatethe bacterial host cell is relatively low, i.e., low levels ofexpression are sufficient to effect incapacitation of the bacterialcell. For example, a protein that is inserted into the inner membrane ofthe bacterial cell that thereby destroys the membrane potential; or aprotein that effects inactivation of bacterial ribosomes. In such cases,induction of the heterologous gene would be followed shortly thereafterby cessation of protein synthesis.

Expression of Heterologous Protein of Biological Use:

In another embodiment, the invention involves expression of arecombinant protein from the recombinant promoter in an amount thatprovides for a biologically relevant activity. In one embodiment, thebiologically relevant activity is reduction of toxicity of endotoxin(LPS), such as an LPS-binding protein (e.g., LPS-binding protein (LBP),bactericidal-permeability increasing protein (BPI), U.S. Pat. Nos.5,089,274; 5,171,739; 5,198,541); CAP18 (Larrick et al. Biochem BiophysRes Commun. 1991 Aug. 30; 179(1):170-5); and the like. The concept isnot limited to the LPS-binding protein alone and may be extended toseveral other proteins and peptides that would aid in combatingbacterial infection directly or indirectly. It also applies to use ofsuch incapacitated cells as vehicles for delivering biologically usefulpeptides or proteins or other molecules to target tissues or cells ofhumans and animals.

Other embodiments include cytokines, e.g., IL-4, IL-13, and others,which induce particular immune responses. Other genes may attractdendritic cells, helper T cells, resting macrophages etc., to the siteof the innoculation. These may even include prominent cell surfaceantigens of the target vaccine cells themselves, which would amplify theantigenic signal. Immune adjuvants may be used, preferably derived fromthe subject, thereby minimizing the likelihood of an immune response tothe expressed protein, but assisting the immune system in responding tothe vaccine.

Complex mechanisms come into play in both vertebrates and invertebratesin response to infection with gram negative bacteria. The variousdefense mechanisms are triggered by recognition of the LPS (endotoxin)present on the outer membrane of these bacteria. Leukocytes respond toLPS at very low concentrations and a cascade of events follows involvingseveral effector molecules among which excessive secretion of TumorNecrosis Factor (TNF) plays a major role in mediating the endotoxiceffects (B. Sherry & A. Cerami, 1988). The host response ends inelimination of the pathogen or may lead to severe symptoms ofirreversible shock, sepsis, multi-organ failure and finally death.

LPS binding protein (LBP) is an approximately 60 kDa acute phase proteinthat is produced by hepatocytes. This protein strongly binds to LPS andhas been shown to play an important role in the handling of LPS by thehost. A number of functions of LBP have been reported. First, LBPtransfers LPS to the LPS receptor CD14 on mononuclear phagocytes,leading to an 100-1,000-fold increased sensitivity of the cells to LPS.Furthermore, LBP can enhance the response of CD14 negative cells byacceleration of LPS binding to soluble CD14, a complex that stimulatesthese cells. Blockade of CD14 with antibodies prevented synthesis ofTNFa by whole blood incubated with LPS (S D Wright et al., 1990). Next,LBP transfers LPS into High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) which effectivelyneutralizes its biological potency. LBP was demonstrated to protect micefrom septic shock caused by LPS or gram negative bacteria.

LBP contains two domains, one which binds to LPS and other which bindsto CD14. It has been shown (Han J et al, 1994) that LBP, truncated atamino acid residue 197, binds LPS but does not transfer LPS to CD14.Thus, appropriately modified fragments of LBP can be agents to bind LPSdischarged by gram-negative bacteria, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,731,415(describing LBP fragments that bind LPS and LPS-binding proteins). Seealso Schumann et al. “Structure and function of lipopolysaccharidebinding protein” Science. 1990 Sep. 21; 249(4975):1429-31.

Thus in one aspect, the invention features cloning and expression of apolypeptide comprising the LPS-binding domain of LBP, e.g., an LBPfragment that does not contain a functional CD14-binding domain. Theincapacitated bacterial cells are modified to express the protein at alevel sufficient to render the bacterial host incapacitated (e.g.,bacteriostatic). Expression of the LPS-binding protein provides forproduction of a store of this protein in the host cell. When releasedfrom the bacterial cell, the LPS-binding protein effectively scavengesthe LPS in circulation by competing with native LBP present in thesubject. The gene encoding the desired protein can be optimized forcodon usage to maximize expression levels.

Expression of Phage Gene Products in Bacteria:

In another embodiment, the bacterial host is incapacitated by expressionof one or more bacteriophage proteins, which proteins may be expressedfrom an inducible promoter, and which proteins are expressed at a levelsufficient to incapacitate the bacterial host.

For example, within a few minutes after the T4 phage infects E. coliinfection, the structure of the bacterial nucleoid changes dramatically.The bacterial nucleoid, present in the center is dispersed to theperiphery, distributed along the inner membrane (Murray et al, 1950;Luria and Human, 1950). This phenomenon is known as nuclear disruptionand is brought about by the gene product of T4 ndd gene. Thus T4 ndd isa suitable recombinant protein for expression in this embodiment of theinvention. This could also include other bacteriophage, viral,bacterial, or other enzymes that when expressed inactivate the cell byother means such as degradation of the nucleic acids (nucleases) ordegradation of proteins (proteases) or via interruption of criticalprocesses in the bacterial cell.

Host lysis by most bacteriophages requires two phage codedproteins—Holin and Endolysin (Wang, I. N- et al., 2000; Young, R. etal., 2000). While endolysins are muralytic enzymes that are involved incell wall degradation (Young. R, 1993; Young. R & Blasi. U, 1995), it isthe holins that determine the specific time of cell lysis. Holins aresmall membrane proteins that accumulate and oligomerize in the membraneand lead to permeabilizatrion of the membrane by formation of a hole inthe membrane that makes the cell wall amenable to the endolysin (Young.R & Blasi. U, 1995; Ing-Nang Wang et al., 2000).

The holin gene of the temperate bacteriophage PhiO1205 which infectsStreptococcus thermophilus when cloned on a plasmid and expressed in E.coli expression system has been shown to cause cell death and leakage ofintracellular enzymes into the growth medium. The expression of a clonedviral gene (gene e of PhiX174) in gram-negative bacteria has also beenshown to result in lysis of these bacteria by formation of a specifictransmembrane tunnel structure built through the cell envelope complex.During lysis the cell content is expelled by the osmotic pressure insidethe cell resulting in bacterial ghosts. Both holin and endolysin aresuitable bacteriophage proteins suitable for expression in thisembodiment of the invention for production of an immunogenic,incapacitated bacteria composition.

The different means of generating incapacitated bacterial cells for useas whole cell vaccines described have the following main advantages:

-   -   Retention of the broad array of pathogen specific antigens,        particularly epitopes which may be derived from complex surface        structures;    -   Bacteria are inactivated through a process that preserves much        of the bacteria's native structure, which should result in an        enhanced protective immune response;    -   Dead bacteria are taken up by macrophages and dendritic cells,        resulting in the induction of cellular immune responses;    -   Suited as vaccines for both mucosal and intramuscular        administration; and    -   Can be designed to carry an array of antigens from other        pathogens.        Bacterial Pathogens for which Incapacitated Whole Cell Vaccines        can be Generated According to the Invention

Most any suitable bacterial host of interest can be used to produce anincapacitated bacterium according to the invention. Of particularinterest is the development of immunogenic, incapacitated bacterialcompositions for clinically-important bacterial species and strains.Bacteria that are pathogenic for an animal, particularly a mammal, moreparticularly a primate (e.g., human), are of particular interest for usein the production of immunogenic incapacitated bacterial compositions ofthe invention. Specific examples of bacteria suitable for primate useinclude:

-   -   1. Clinically important members of the family        Enterobacteriaceae, including, but not limited to:        -   a. Clinically important strains of Escherichia, with E. coli            being of particular interest;        -   b. Clinically important strains of Klebsiella, with K.            pneumoniae being of particular interest;        -   c. Clinically important strains of Shigella, with S.            dysenteriae being of particular interest;        -   d. Clinically important strains of Salmonella, including S.            abortus-equi, S. typhi, S. typhimurium, S. newport, S.            paratyphi-A, S. paratyphi-B, S. potsdam, and S. pollurum;        -   e. Clinically important strains of Serratia, most notably S.            marcescens        -   f. Clinically important strains of Yersinia, most notably Y.            pestis        -   g. Clinically important strains of Enterobacter, most            notably E. cloacae;    -   2. Clinically important Enterococci, most notably E. faecalis        and E. faecium    -   3. Clinically important Haemophilus strains, most notably H.        influenzae;    -   4. Clinically important Mycobacteria, most notably M.        tuberculosis, M. avium-intracellulare, M. bovis, and M. leprae;    -   5. Neisseria gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis;    -   6. Clinically important Pseudomonas, with P. aeuruginosa being        of particular interest;    -   7. Clinically important Staphylococci, with S. aureus and S.        epidermidis being of particular interest;    -   8. Clinically important Streptococci, with S. pneumoniae being        of particular interest; and    -   9. Vibrio cholera

Additional bacterial pathogens, far too numerous to mention here,particularly those in which drug-resistance has developed, can also beused to produce immunogenic, incapacitated bacterial compositionaccording to the invention. Similar lists of clinically importantbacteria species and strains can be generated for other animals, e.g.,livestock and companion animals. Each target species will haveparticular bacterial infections of significance to health, andbacteriophage which target such infections.

Recombinant Antigens for Expression in a Bacterial Host Cell andProduction of Immunogenic Compositions

In one embodiment, the bacterial host cell can be modified to express anantigenic molecule to which an immune response is desired, e.g., forproduction of antibodies to a particular antigen.

A DNA sequence which encodes an antigenic molecule, or fragment thereof(e.g., epitope), from either a heterologous or endogenous organism,which when expressed in bacteria produces protective immunity againstthe organism or against a condition or disorder caused by the organism,can be isolated for use in the immunogenic preparations of the presentinvention. In one embodiment, the antigen is a surface antigen. Inanother embodiment, the organism is a pathogenic microorganism. In yetanother embodiment, the antigenic molecule, or fragment thereof, ischaracteristic of cancer and provides protective immunity against thecancer or elicits an immune response against the cancer resulting inreduction or elimination of the cancer from a subject.

Antigenic molecules, or fragments thereof, may be found on pathogens,such as bacteria, parasites, viruses or fungi. Bacteria, parasites,viruses and fungi of interest include, but are not limited, to thoselisted in Table I below.

TABLE 1 PARASITES: BACTERIA: Plasmodium spp. (e.g., Vibrio spp. (e.g. V.cholerae) P. falciparum, P. vivax, Neisseria spp. (e.g., N menigitidis,P. ovale, P. malariae) N. gonorrhoeae) Eimeria spp. Corynebacteriadiphtheriae Schistosoma spp. Clostridium tetani Trypanosoma spp.Branhamella catarrhalis Babesia spp. Bordetella pertussis Leishmaniaspp. Haemophilus spp. (e.g., H. influenzae) Cryptosporidia spp.Chlamydia spp. Toxoplasma spp. Escherichia spp. (e.g., E coli)Pneumocystis spp. Bacillus anthracis Borrelia burgdorferi Shigella spp.(e.g., S. dysenteriae) Pseudomona spp. (e.g., P. aeuruginosa)Enterococcus spp. (e.g, E. faecalis, E. faecium) Streptococcus spp.(e.g., S. pneumoniae) Staphylococcus spp. (e.g., S. aureus, S.epidermidis Salmonella spp. (e.g., S. abortus-equi, S. typhi, S.typhimurium, S. newport, S. paratyphi-A, S. paratyphi-B, S. potsdam, andS. pollurum) Serratia spp. (e.g, S. marcescens) Klebsiella spp. (e.g.,K. pneumoniae) Yersinia spp. (e.g., Y. pestis) Enterobacter spp. (e.g.,E. cloacae) Serratia spp. Mycobacterium spp. (e.g., M. tuberculosis, M.avium-intracellulare, M. bovis, M. leprae) Rickettsia spp. (e.g., R.prowazekii, R. typhi, R. rickettsii) Rochalimaea quintana Coxiellaburnetii FUNGI: VIRUSES: Candida spp. (e.g., Human Immunodeficiencyvirus, C. albicans) type I Cryptococcus spp. Human Immunodeficiencyvirus, (e.g., C. neoformans) type II Blastomyces spp. SimianImmunodeficiency virus (e.g., B. Human T lymphocyte virus, type I,dermatitidis) II and III Histoplasma spp. Respiratory syncytial virus(e.g., H. capsulatum) Hepatitis A virus Coccidioides spp. Hepatitis Bvirus (e.g., C immitis) Hepatitis C virus Paracoccidioides spp. Non-A,Non-B Hepatitis Virus (e.g., P. brasiliensis) Herpes simplex virus, typeI Aspergillus spp. Herpes simplex virus, type II CytomegalovirusInfluenza virus Parainfluenza virus Poliovirus Poxvirus RotavirusCoronavirus Rubella virus Measles virus Mumps virus Varicella EpsteinBarr virus Adenovirus Papilloma virus Flaviviridae (e.g., yellow fevervirus, dengue fever virus, Japanese encaphilitis virus)

In addition, antigenic molecules of cancer cells can be used. Antigenscharacteristic of cancer cells and useful in the vaccine preparations ofthe present invention include, but are not limited to, MAGE, MUC1,HER2/neu, CEA, pS3, Tyrosinase, MART-1/melan A, gp 100, TRP-1, TRP-2,PSA, CDK4-R24C, BCR/ABL, Mutated K-ras, ESO-1, CA15-3, CA125, CA19-9,CA27.29, TPA, TPS, Cytokeratin 18, and Mutated p53.

Where antigens have not yet been characterized, potentially usefulantigens for vaccine formulations can be identified by various criteria,such as the antigen's involvement in neutralization of a pathogen'sinfectivity (Norrby, E., 1985, Summary, in Vaccines 85, Lerner, R. A.,R. M. Chanock, and F. Brown (eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, ColdSpring Harbor, N.Y., pp. 388-389), type or group specificity,recognition by patients' antisera or immune cells, and/or thedemonstration of protective effects of antisera or immune cells specificfor the antigen.

Immunoreactive molecules can be identified and characterized by methodsknown in the art. Monoclonal antibodies can be generated to the surfaceor other molecules of a pathogen to identify those that are capable ofbeing recognized by the antibodies. Alternatively, small syntheticpeptides conjugated to carrier molecules can be tested for generation ofmonoclonal antibodies that bind to the sites corresponding to thepeptide on the intact molecule (see, e.g., Wilson, I. A., et al., 1984,Cell 37:767).

Genetically engineered bacteria useful in the invention can be createdby employing recombinant DNA technology. A nucleotide sequence whichencodes an antigenic molecule of interest is inserted into an expressionvector, transformed or transfected into an appropriate bacterial hostcell and cultivated under conditions suitable for expression. Theseprocedures are well known in the art and are described generally inSambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Cold SpringHarbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989).

The nucleotide sequence encoding an antigenic molecule may also be fusedto with a nucleic acid, bacterial or otherwise, to facilitate expressionand/or, where desired, facilitate presentation of the expressedantigenic polypeptide on the bacterial cell surface (Cattozzo et al., J.Biotechnol 56, 191 (1997), Stocker and Newton, Int. Rev. Immunol. 11,167 (1994), Stocker, Res. Microbiol. 141, 787 (1990), Newton et al.,Science 244, 70 (1989), U.S. Pat. No. 6,130,082)). For example, Newtonet al. (Res. Microbiol. 146, 203 (1995)) fused an HIV1 gp41 epitope,which is part of the gp160 protein, to a Salmonella flagellum gene incorrect orientation and reading frame. The plasmid was placed in aflagellin-negative live-vaccine Salmonella strain, which then made aprotein with the foreign HIV1 epitope sequence integrated into it. Miceimmunized with live-vaccine of the recombinant Salmonella showedproduction of antibody with affinity for gp160.

The nucleotide sequence encoding an antigenic molecule may also be fusedto with a nucleic acid, bacterial or otherwise, to facilitatepresentation of the expressed antigenic polypeptide on the cell surfaceof the genetically engineered bacteria (Cattozzo et al., J. Biotechnol56, 191 (1997), Stocker and Newton, Int. Rev. Immunol. 11, 167 (1994),Stocker, Res. Microbiol. 141, 787 (1990), Newton et al., Science 244, 70(1989), U.S. Pat. No. 6,130,082)). For example, Newton et al. (Res.Microbiol. 146, 203 (1995)) fused an HIV1 gp41 epitope, which is part ofthe gp160 protein, to a Salmonella flagellum gene in correct orientationand reading frame. The plasmid was placed in a flagellin-negativelive-vaccine Salmonella strain, which then made a protein with theforeign HIV1 epitope sequence integrated into it. Mice immunized withlive-vaccine of the recombinant Salmonella showed production of antibodywith affinity for gp160.

Immunopotency of the antigenic molecule expressed by the geneticallyengineered bacteria in an incapacitated, whole cell immunogenicpreparation, can be determined by monitoring the immune response of testanimals following immunization with the bacteria expressing therecombinant antigen. Test animals may include mice, guinea pigs,rabbits, chickens, chimpanzees and other primates, and eventually humansubjects. Methods of introduction of the incapacitated recombinantbacteria may include oral, intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal,intravenous, subcutaneous, intranasal or any other standard routes ofimmunizations.

The immune response of the test subjects can be analyzed by variousapproaches such as: (a) the reactivity of the resultant immune serum tothe native antigen or a fragment thereof, or to the isolated naturallyoccurring organism (e.g., wild-type organism) from which the testantigenic molecule was derived, as assayed by known techniques, e.g.,enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), immunoblots,radioimmunoprecipitations, etc., (b) the reactivity of lymphocytesisolated from the immunized subject to the native antigen or fragmentthereof, or the naturally occurring organism from which the testantigenic molecule was derived, as assayed by known techniques, e.g.,blastogenic response assays, cytotoxicity assays, delayed typehypersensitivity, etc., (c) the ability of the immune serum toneutralize infectivity of the organism in vitro or the biologic activityof the native antigen, and (d) protection from disease and/or mitigationof infectious symptoms in immunized animals.

Use of Incapacitated Bacteria for Production of Antibodies

For the production of antibodies against an antigenic molecule expressedby bacteria, which bacteria may be genetically engineered to express aheterologous protein or to overexpress an endogenous protein, varioushost animals may be immunized by injection with an incapacitated wholecell immunogenic composition of the invention.

Such host animals may include, but are not limited to rabbits, mice, andrats, to name but a few. Various adjuvants may be used to increase theimmunological response, depending on the host species, including but notlimited to Freund's (complete and incomplete), mineral gels such asaluminum hydroxide, surface active substances such as lysolecithin,pluronic polyols, polyanions, peptides, oil emulsions, keyhole limpethemocyanin, dinitrophenol, and potentially useful human adjuvants suchas BCG (bacille Calmette-Guerin) and Corynebacterium parvum.

Polyclonal antibodies are heterogeneous populations of antibodymolecules derived from the sera of animals immunized with an antigen.For the production of polyclonal antibodies, host animals such as thosedescribed above, may be immunized by injection with an incapacitatedwhole cell bacterial composition of the invention. The composition maybe supplemented with adjuvants.

The antibody titer in the immunized subject can be monitored over timeby standard techniques, such as with an enzyme linked immunosorbentassay (ELISA) using immobilized polypeptide. If desired, the antibodymolecules can be isolated from the mammal (e.g., from the blood) andfurther purified by well-known techniques, such as protein Achromatography to obtain the IgG fraction. Antibodies specific for anantigen, or fragment thereof, particularly for a recombinant antigenicmolecule expressed by genetically engineered bacteria, can be selectedfor (e.g., partially purified) or purified by, e.g., affinitychromatography.

For example, a recombinantly expressed and purified (or partiallypurified) protein antigen is produced in genetically engineered bacteriaas described herein, and covalently or non-covalently coupled to a solidsupport such as, for example, a chromatography column. The column maythen be used to affinity purify antibodies specific for the proteinsfrom a sample containing antibodies directed against a large number ofdifferent epitopes, thereby generating a substantially purified antibodycomposition, i.e., one that is substantially free of contaminatingantibodies. By a substantially purified antibody composition is meant,in this context, that the antibody sample contains at most only about30% (by dry weight) of contaminating antibodies directed againstepitopes other than those on the desired protein or polypeptide ofinterest, and preferably at most about 20%, yet more preferably at most10%, and most preferably at most about 5% (by dry weight) of the sampleis contaminating antibodies. A purified antibody composition means thatat least about 99% of the antibodies in the composition are directedagainst the desired antigenic protein or polypeptide.

Monoclonal antibodies, which are homogeneous populations of antibodiesto a particular antigen, may be obtained by any technique that providesfor the production of antibodies by, for example, continuous cell linesin culture. These include, but are not limited to, the hybridomatechnique of Kohler and Milstein, (1975, Nature 256, 495-497; and U.S.Pat. No. 4,376,110), the human B-cell hybridoma technique (Kosbor etal., 1983, Immunology Today 4, 72; Cole et al., 1983, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA 80: 2026-2030), and the EBV-hybridoma technique (Cole et al.,1985, Monoclonal Antibodies And Cancer Therapy, Alan R. Liss, Inc., pp.77-96). Such antibodies may be of any immunoglobulin class includingIgG, IgM, IgE, IgA, IgD and any subclass thereof. The hybridomaproducing the desired mAb may be cultivated in vitro or in vivo.Production of high titers of mAbs in vivo makes this the presentlypreferred method of production.

Uses of Antibodies Directed Against Incapacitated Bacteria

The antibodies generated against the incapacitated whole cellimmunogenic bacterial composition of the invention have potential usesin diagnostic immunoassays, passive immunotherapy, and generation ofantiidiotypic antibodies. In one embodiment, the composition used togenerate the antibodies comprises bacteria genetically engineered toexpress a heterologous protein or to overexpress an endogenous protein.

The generated antibodies may be isolated by standard techniques known inthe art (e.g., immunoaffinity chromatography, centrifugation,precipitation, etc.) and used in diagnostic immunoassays to detect thepresence of cancerous cells or viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites ofmedical or veterinary importance in human or animal tissues, blood,serum, etc. The antibodies may also be used to monitor treatment and/ordisease progression. Any immunoassay system known in the art, such asthose listed herein, may be used for this purpose including but notlimited to competitive and noncompetitive assay systems using techniquessuch as radioimmunoassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assays),“sandwich” immunoassays, precipitin reactions, gel diffusion precipitinreactions, immunodiffusion assays, agglutination assays,complement-fixation assays, immunoradiometric assays, fluorescentimmunoassays, protein A immunoassays and immunoelectrophoresis assays,etc., where such immunoassays are known in the art.

The vaccine preparations of the present invention can also be used toproduce antibodies for use in passive immunotherapy, in which short-termprotection of a host is achieved by the administration of pre-formedantibody directed against a heterologous organism.

The antibodies generated by the vaccine preparations of the presentinvention can also be used in the production of antiidiotypic antibody.The antiidiotypic antibody can then in turn be used for immunization, inorder to produce subpopulation of antibodies that bind the initialantigen of the pathogenic microorganism (Jerne, N. K., 1974, Ann.Immunol. (Paris) 125c:373; Jerne, N. K., et al., 1982, EMBO 1:234).

Formulations, Routes of Administration and Dosages

The immunogenic compositions of the invention can be formulated in anysuitable manner. In general, the immunogenic compositions can beadministered orally, nasally, nasopharyngeally, parenterally,enterically, gastrically, topically, transdermally, subcutaneously,intramuscularly, in tablet, solid, powdered, liquid, aerosol form,locally or systemically, with or without added excipients. Actualmethods for preparing parenterally administrable compositions will beknown or apparent to those skilled in the art and are described in moredetail in such publications as Remington's Pharmaceutical Science, 15thed., Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (1980).

It is recognized that the oral administration can require protection ofdigestion. This can be accomplished either by mixing or packaging theincapacitated bacterium in an appropriately resistant carrier such as aliposome. The preparations may also be provided in controlled release orslow-release forms for release and administration of the antigenpreparations as a mixture or in serial fashion.

The immunogenic compositions of the invention are generally provided incombination with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Variouspharmaceutically acceptable excipients are well known in the art. Asused herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable excipient” includes anymaterial which, when combined with an active ingredient of acomposition, allows the ingredient to retain biological activity andwithout causing disruptive reactions with the subject's immune system.

Exemplary pharmaceutically carriers include sterile aqueous ofnon-aqueous solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. Examples include, butare not limited to, any of the standard pharmaceutical excipients suchas a phosphate buffered saline solution, water, emulsions such asoil/water emulsion, and various types of wetting agents. Examples ofnon-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol,vegetable oils such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters such asethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueoussolutions, emulsions or suspensions, including saline and bufferedmedia. Parenteral vehicles include sodium chloride solution, Ringer'sdextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer's or fixed oils.Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers,electrolyte replenishers (such as those based on Ringer's dextrose), andthe like.

A composition comprising an incapacitated bacterium of the invention mayalso be lyophilized using means well known in the art, for subsequentreconstitution and use according to the invention.

Also of interest are formulations for liposomal delivery, andformulations comprising microencapsulated whole cell bacterial vaccine.Compositions comprising such excipients are formulated by well knownconventional methods (see, for example, Remington's PharmaceuticalSciences, Chapter 43, 14th Ed., Mack Publishing Col, Easton Pa. 18042,USA).

In general, the pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared in variousforms, such as granules, tablets, pills, suppositories, capsules (e.g.adapted for oral delivery), microbeads, microspheres, liposomes,suspensions, salves, lotions and the like. Pharmaceutical grade organicor inorganic carriers and/or diluents suitable for oral and topical usecan be used to make up compositions comprising thetherapeutically-active compounds. Diluents known to the art includeaqueous media, vegetable and animal oils and fats. Stabilizing agents,wetting and emulsifying agents, salts for varying the osmotic pressureor buffers for securing an adequate pH value.

The pharmaceutical composition can comprise other components inadditional to the incapacitated bacterium. In addition, thepharmaceutical compositions may comprise more than one incapacitatedbacteria, for example, two or more, three or more, five or more, or tenor more different incapacitated bacteria, where the different bacteriamay be of the same or different serotypes, species, and the like. Asnoted above, the incapacitated bacteria can be administered inconjunction with other agents, such as a conventional antimicrobialagent (see table above). In some embodiments, it may be desirable toadminister the incapacitated bacterium and antibiotic within the sameformulation.

The compositions are administered to an animal that is at risk fromacquiring a disease caused by the bacterial pathogen to prevent or atleast partially arrest the development of disease and its complications.An amount adequate to accomplish this is defined as a “therapeuticallyeffective dose.” Amounts effective for therapeutic use will depend on,e.g., the antigen composition, the manner of administration, the weightand general state of health of the patient, and the judgment of theprescribing physician. Single or multiple doses of the compositions maybe administered depending on the dosage and frequency required andtolerated by the patient, and route of administration.

Amounts for the immunization of the mixture generally range from about0.001 mg to about 1.0 mg per 70 kilogram patient, more commonly fromabout 0.001 mg to about 0.2 mg per 70 kilogram patient. Dosages from0.001 up to about 10 mg per patient per day may be used, particularlywhen the antigen is administered to a secluded site and not into theblood stream, such as into a body cavity or into a lumen of an organ.Substantially higher dosages (e.g. 10 to 100 mg or more) are possible inoral, nasal, or topical administration. The initial administration ofthe mixture can be followed by booster immunization of the same ofdifferent mixture, with at least one booster, more usually two boosters,being preferred.

The invention also contemplates that the immunogenic compositioncomprising an incapacitated bacteria can be used as a vaccine, and mayinclude one or more strains of incapacitated bacteria.

The vaccines can be administered to any subject, generally a mammaliansubject, that has or is susceptible to, infection by a bacterialpathogen. Subjects of particular interest include, but are notnecessarily limited to, humans, and domesticated animals (e.g.,livestock, pets, and the like) as well as animals held in captivity(e.g., in zoos or aquatic parks).

While the subject need not be immunologically naïve, the vaccines of theinvention are typically administered to a subject that isimmunologically naïve with respect to the particular bacterial pathogen.In a particular embodiment, the mammal is a primate (e.g., human) childabout five years or younger, and preferably about two years old oryounger. The vaccine of the invention can be administered as a singledose or, where desired or necessary, the initial dose can be followed byboosters at several days, several weeks, or several months or yearsfollowing the initial dose. In general, administration to any mammal ispreferably initiated prior to the first sign of disease symptoms, or atthe first sign of possible or actual exposure to the bacterial pathogen.

EXAMPLES

The foregoing embodiments of the present invention are further describedin the following examples. The following examples are put forth so as toprovide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosureand description of how to make and use the present invention, and arenot intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as theirinvention. The present invention is not limited by the specificexamples, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the artwithout departing from the scope of the present invention. Inparticular, any other heterologous protein, which will make thebacterial cell non-viable, can be substituted in the experiments of thefollowing examples.

Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used(e.g. amounts, temperature, etc.) but some experimental errors anddeviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, partsare parts by weight, molecular weight is weight average molecularweight, temperature is in degrees Centigrade, and pressure is at or nearatmospheric.

Example 1 Construction of an Expression Cassette with a Gene of InterestUsing Different Promoters

The pTrc, ptac and araBAD promoters were tested for their effect onexpression of various recombinant proteins and also on viability of thecells expressing the recombinant proteins.

Gene Expression from Foreign Promoters.

Many proteins are expressed at low levels in vivo. To produce highlevels of a protein, it is often useful to clone the gene downstream ofa well-characterized, regulated promoter. Inducing transcription fromthe regulated promoter thus results in elevated expression of thedownstream gene product. If the regulated promoter can be tightlydown-regulated (e.g., turned off), this also provides a method ofconditionally depleting the cell of a gene product. A variety ofregulated promoters can be used for this purpose. A few examples aredescribed below.

Ptac

The tac promoter/operator (PTAC) is one of the most widely usedexpression systems. Ptac is a strong hybrid promoter composed of the −35region of the trp promoter and the −10 region of the lacUV5promoter/operator. Expression of Ptac is repressed by the LacI protein.The lacI^q allele is a promoter mutation that increases theintracellular concentration of LacI repressor, resulting in strongrepression of PTAC. Addition of the inducer-IPTG inactivates the LacIrepressor. Thus, the amount of expression from PTAC is proportional tothe concentration of IPTG added: low concentrations of IPTG result inrelatively low expression from PTAC and high concentrations of IPTGresult in high expression from PTAC. By varying the IPTG concentrationthe amount of gene product cloned downstream from PTAC can be variedover several orders of magnitude.

Several potential problems must be considered when expressing a clonedgene product from PTAC:

-   -   lacI^q should be cloned on the same plasmid as the regulated        gene, because if lacI^q is on the chromosome or on another        plasmid there may be insufficient LacI protein to fully repress        the Ptac promoter in trans.    -   The cell viability should be measured at different        concentrations of IPTG, because excessive overexpression of a        DNA-binding protein may cause the protein to accumulate in        inclusion bodies (Nilsson and Anderson, 1991) or inhibit cell        growth.    -   Even when fully repressed, there is some residual expression        from PTAC. If this leaky expression causes problems, it may be        necessary to clone the gene into an alternative expression        vector that is more tightly repressed.

PBAD.

The promoter for the E. coli arabinose operon (PBAD or PARA) is a usefulalternative to PTAC. When a gene is cloned behind the PBAD promoter,expression of the gene is controlled by the AraC activator. Expressionfrom PARA is induced to high levels on media containing arabinose.Moreover, expression from PARA is tightly downregulated (e.g., shut off)when the bacterial host is grown on media containing glucose but lackingarabinose.

Like the arabinose operon, expression of the E. coli rhamnose operon istightly regulated by an activator. Expression from the rhamnose promoter(PRHA) is induced to high levels by the addition of rhamnose.

Phage Promoters.

Another approach to accomplish protein overexpression is to place a geneunder the control of a regulated phage promoter. A gene may be cloneddownstream of a tightly regulated phage promoter that is normallytranscribed by the host's RNA polymerase. For example, expression of agene cloned downstream of the lambda PL promoter can be regulated by thecI repressor. Using the temperature sensitive cI857 repressor allowscontrol of gene expression by changing the growth temperature—at 30 Cthe cI857 repressor is functional and it turns off expression of thegene, but at 42 C the repressor is inactivated so expression of the geneensues. Alternatively, the wild-type cI gene can be placed under thecontrol of another regulated promoter such as the PLAC promoter,allowing inducible expression regulation by the addition of IPTG.

Alternatively, the gene may be cloned downstream of a phage promoterthat relies on a phage encoded RNA polymerase. Many phage produce aspecific RNA polymerase that recognizes a promoter sequence which isquite different from E. coli promoter sequences. Three phage-specificRNA polymerase/promoter systems that are commonly used in expressionvectors include T7, SP6, and T3. In addition to recognizing uniquepromoters, these systems result in very high levels of transcription ofthe downstream gene. Such high-level transcription can be usedoverproduce a gene product operably linked to the phage promoter, butthe expression is so high that it is often toxic to the host cell. Toavoid potential toxicity the phage RNA polymerase is only induced whenthe overexpression is desired. For example, the phage RNA polymerase maybe itself cloned behind a regulated promoter, or the polymerase may beintroduced to the cell on a defective phage.

Example 2 Construction of an Expression Cassette Under T7 and TrcPromoter

This example describes cloning and expression of different types ofheterologous proteins in the strong phage promoter system-T7 promoter.The genes are GFP from jellyfish Aequorea Victoria, NADH dehydrogenaseof Micrococcus luteus, ndd gene of T4 bacteriophage etc.

GFP:

The GFP gene from jellyfish Aequorea Victoria in the plasmid pGLO(Biorad Laboratories, USA) is cloned at the EcoR1 site of the pRSETvector and the recombinants carrying the GFP gene are selected byrestriction analysis. The plasmids are later used to transform BL21(DE3)cells for expression of the same monitored after IPTG induction. TheBL21 has a potential advantage of being deficient in lon protease andalso lacks ompT—an outer membrane protease that can degrade proteins.Bacteriophage DE3 is a lambda derivative that has the immunity region ofthe phage 21 and carries a DNA fragment containing the lad gene, lacUV5promoter, the beginning of the lacZ gene and the gene for T7 RNApolymerase. In DE3 cells, the only promoter known to directtranscription of the T7 RNA polymerase gene is the lacUV5 promoter,which is inducible by IPTG (Studier et al 1990). The data obtained(FIG. 1) indicates that there is an approximately 98% loss in viabilityof cells expressing rGFP.

NADH Dehydrogenase:

The PCR amplification of the NADH dehydrogenase gene is done from thegenomic DNA of Micrococcus luteus and the purified PCR product isdigested with Nde1/HindIII (sites incorporated in the oligonucleotides)and cloned into ampicillin resistant pET vector in the same sites in theMCS region. The expression of the protein is monitored in BL21(DE3)cells after IPTG induction and the viability of the cells expressing theforeign protein is monitored by plating. [From FIG. 2 it is clear thatalthough there is no effect on the growth rate of cells expressingrecombinant NADH dehydrogenase, there is almost 100% death of cellsexpressing this protein.

To examine the effect of vector alone in the cells carrying them afterIPTG induction, BL21(DE3) cells carrying the vector—pRSETA was inducedwith IPTG as described above. The results indicated (FIG. 3) that thereis drastic loss of viability in cells carrying vector alone whichindicates that T7 RNA polymerase may be the causative agent for theviability loss.

In another embodiment of the invention, the recombinant proteinexpressed to incapacitate the bacterial host is a phage protein. Belowtwo different T4 phage proteins—holin and lysin were expressed from anE. coli Trc promoter—pTrc99A (Amann et al 1988) and the effect ofexpression of these proteins on cell viability studied.

Holin:

Holin gene from T4 phage DNA is PCR amplified using holin specificprimers and then cloned into EcoR1/HindIII in pET vectors and the samegene is subcloned into similar sites in pTrc promoter basedvector—pTrc99A. The expression of the T4 holin gene is monitored in DH5αcells and the effect of the following on viability status of the cellsis examined. Several pathogenic E. coli cells are taken and transformedwith the same plasmid carrying holin gene in pTrc vector and theviability checked upon IPTG induction. Results indicated that there issevere loss of viability of the cells expressing holin (FIG. 4 to 9).

Lysozyme: The T4 phage lysozyme gene is PCR amplified from the T4 phagelysate and cloned as BamH1/HindIII in pTrc99A vector in similar sites.The recombinants carrying the inserts are identified by PCR for T4 lysinusing lysin specific primers and then the induction is carried out inDH5α cells with 2 mM IPTG for 4 hours at 37 deg C. and viability checkedevery hour. Suitable vector controls are also run for comparison. Theresults indicated (FIG. 10 and FIG. 11) significant loss of viability ofthe cells expressing lysozyme while there is no loss in case of vectorinduced under similar conditions.

Other Gene Products of Interest for Use in Production of IncapacitatedBacterial Host Cells

T4 Ndd Gene:

The ndd gene is PCR amplified using appropriate oligonucleotides fromthe T4 phage DNA and after digestion with Nde1/HindIII is cloned intothe ampicillin resistant pET vector into the Nde1/HindIII sites. Therecombinants carrying the ndd insert are screened by PCR for ndd gene byndd gene specific primers and the expression of the ndd gene product ismonitored in BL21(DE3) cells upon IPTG induction. The viability of thecells expressing the above gene product is assessed by plating onsuitable Lbagar plates with appropriate antibiotics.

T7 RNA Polymerase:

Bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase coding sequence of 2651 base pairs isPCR amplified from T7 phage DNA and then cloned into suitable sites ofexpression vectors with pTac/pBAD/pTrc promoter system. The effect ofthe expression of the above protein on viability of the cells ismonitored.

Endotoxin Binding Protein:

The bactericidal permeability binding protein (rBP21) is PCR amplifiedfrom hepatic liver cDNA and then the N terminal and the C terminalportions is separately cloned into pET vector. The sCD14 is also PCRamplified and cloned into suitable expression vectors. The effect ofexpression of all these proteins on viability of the bacterial cells isexamined.

Hosts Types:

Similar experiments are carried out with vectors compatible in severalother hosts like Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Klebsiella, Bacillus,Proteus etc for establishing the loss of viability upon induction of aforeign protein.

REFERENCES CITED IN EXAMPLES

The following references are of interest in the practice of the examplesabove:

-   -   Amann E, Brosius J, Ptashne M. 1983. Vectors bearing a hybrid        trp-lac promoter useful for regulated expression of cloned genes        in Escherichia coli. Gene 25: 167-178.    -   Guzman L M, Belin D, Carson M J, Beckwith J. 1992. Tight        regulation, modulation, and high-level expression by vectors        containing the arabinose PBAD promoter. J Bacteriol. 177:        4121-4130.    -   Haldimann, A., L. Daniels, B. Wanner 1998. Use of new methods        for construction of tightly regulated arabinose and rhamnose        promoter fusions in studies of the Escherichia coli phosphate        regulon. J. Bacteriol. 180: 1277-1286.    -   Studier, F., and B. Moffatt. 1986. Use of bacteriophage T7 RNA        polymerase to direct selective high-level expression of cloned        genes. J. Mol. Biol. 189: 113-130.    -   Studier W, Rosenberg A H, J J Dunn and Dubendroff J W (1990)        Methods in Enzymology, 185, 60-63    -   Amann E, Ochs B and Abel Karl-Josef 1988. Tightly regulated tac        promoter vectors useful for the expression of unfused and fused        proteins in E. coli. Gene, 69, 301-315

Example 3 In Vivo Vaccination

An animal model is used to demonstrate that bacteria incapacitated bythe present invention are capable of inducing an immune response in thehost animal. The animal is vaccinated with an incapacitated immunogenprepared, e.g., as described above. After a sufficient period of time toallow the production of an immune response, the animals are challengedwith live form of the bacteria. The response of vaccinated animals iscompared with control animals vaccinated with a control composition.

For example, whole cell immunogen is prepared as described. Animals arevaccinated with 3 appropriate doses of the incapacitated bacteria atappropriate intervals, e.g., 2-3 weeks between vaccinations. Thevaccines are formulated with adjuvants and appropriate carriers andexcipients. Antibody titers may be monitored compared to mockimmunizations, e.g., immunizations with adjuvant lacking theincapacitated bacteria, and the immune responses may be characterized.

Beyond antibody titer, the effectiveness of the immune response can alsobe tested. For example, the animals may be challenged with livebacteria. The effectiveness of response may be evaluated by clearance ofthe bacteria, or by decrease in pathogenicity of the bacteria. Survivalrates, e.g., after challenge with a lethal dose of bacteria, may beevaluated.

Swiss Albino mice are immunized via intraperitoneal route, usingpathogenic E. coli cells (MTCC #443) that are killed withlysis-deficient phage (incapacitated whole cells) generated by one ofthe means described. Three doses of the 10⁴ killed cells areadministered at four-day intervals. Four days after the lastimmunization, the mice are challenged with an LD₈₀ dose of livepathogenic E. coli (MTCC #443) cells. For controls, heatkilled/formaldehyde treated cells are included. The mice are bled andserum collected for analysis for presence of anti-E. coli antibodies. Inall the ELISA assays the pre-immune sera are used as blank.

The experimental details and results of such an example of in vivovaccination are set out in the tables below.

TABLE II Experimental details Immunization Challenge Test No. of (i.p.)(i.p.) Groups Category animals DAYS 1, 5, 9 DAY 13 1 Vehicle control 5 + 5* Yes Yes Saline 2 Heat Killed 5 + 5 Yes Yes cells 3 Over exp. T75 + 5 Yes Yes RNA POL killed cells 4 Live cells 5 + 5 Yes Yes 5Formaldehyde - 5 + 5 Yes Yes killed 6 Holin-expressed 5 + 5 Yes Yeskilled cells 7 Thymol killed 5 + 5 Yes Yes cells 8 Heat Killed 5 + 5 YesNO cells (+ve serum collection) *indicates 5 animals in each groupmentioned in the adjacent columns

TABLE III Post-Immunization and challenge Results Mortality Mortalityafter after % survival/ Test group immunization challenge protectionVehicle control — 4/10 60% Saline +ve Control 1 Nil 1/10 90% Heat Killedcells +ve Control 2 Nil 1/10 90% Formaldehyde - killed cells Test 1 Nil1/10 90% Holin-expressed killed cells Test 2 Nil 2/10 80% Over exp. T7RNA POL killed cells +ve Serum control Nil Not 100%  Heat Killed cellschallenged

TABLE IV Serum analysis for presence of anti-E. coli antibodies - ELISAresults No. of samples No. of mice No. of samples showing anti- %animals showing Test Group surviving challenge analyzed * E. coliantibody immune response Heat Killed cells 10/10  4 3/4 75% Unchallenged+ve serum control Saline 6/10 2 2/2 100%  Vehicle control Heat Killedcells 9/10 5 3/5 60% +ve control Formaldehyde - 9/10 6 6/6 100%  killedcells +ve control Holin-expressed 9/10 6 5/6 83% killed cells Over exp.T7 RNA 8/10 6 5/6 83% POL killed cells * serum was collected from mice(randomly selected) prior to immunization to confirm absence ofantibodies to E. coli

That which is claimed is:
 1. A method of producing an immunogenicbacterial composition, comprising the steps of: producing incapacitatedbacteria by introducing an expression vector into the bacteria, theexpression vector comprising a bacteriophage promoter operably linked toa polynucleotide encoding a gene product wherein the bacteria arerecombinantly modified to express a bacteriophage RNA polymerase fortranscription from the bacteriophage promoter, wherein expression of thegene product is at a level sufficient to render the bacteriaincapacitated; and optionally adding a pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient, thereby producing an immunogenic bacterial composition;wherein (i) the bacteriophage promoter is a T7 bacteriophage promoterand the bacteriophage RNA polymerase is T7 RNA polymerase, (ii) thebacteriophage promoter is a SP6 bacteriophage promoter and thebacteriophage RNA polymerase is SP6 RNA polymerase, (iii) thebacteriophage promoter is a T3 bacteriophage promoter and thebacteriophage RNA polymerase is T3 RNA polymerase, or (iv) thebacteriophage promoter is a T7 bacteriophage promoter and thebacteriophage RNA polymerase is T7 RNA polymerase.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the immunogenic bacterial composition further comprisesan adjuvant.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the polynucleotideencodes a lipopolysaccharide binding protein.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein the polynucleotide encodes a cytokine.
 5. The method of claim 1,wherein said polynucleotide encodes an adjuvant.